Journal of Defence Studies

Multi-Domain Operations: Air Force as the Central Node

The modern battlespace is heavily influenced by technology and it has forced modern militaries to reflect on the question, ‘What comes after Joint.’1 There is growing recognition that in the contemporary operational environment, focus on ‘joint’ is no longer sufficient. The character of warfare has undergone a profound transformation; the modern battlespace has become an intricate, multifaceted environment where success is contingent upon the harmonious orchestration of capabilities spanning diverse operational domains.2 While the term ‘joint’ usually signifies integration at the operational level, ‘multidomain’ aims to achieve integration across all levels—from strategic to tactical.3 Multi-Domain Operations (MDOs) have evolved as a method to integrate and synchronise activities across land, sea, air, space, cyber and information domains to achieve strategic objectives. The ability to seamlessly operate across these domains is crucial for military success in any contemporary and future conflict. This commentary argues that air forces are best suited to play the predominant role in these operations due to their advanced technological capabilities, strategic flexibility, robust command and control structures, and a culture of innovation. The commentary will dwell on these attributes and their implications for MDOs, drawing on historical evidences and will also carry out a comparative analysis with other military branches—namely the army and navy—highlighting the distinct advantages of air force in conduct of MDOs.

Can India and China Break Free from the Triangle of Conflict at the Border?

On 21 October 2024, during a special briefing on Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Russia, India’s Foreign Secretary, Shri Vikram Misri stated, ‘Over the last several weeks, Indian and Chinese diplomatic and military negotiators have been in close contact with each other in various forums. As a result of these discussions, an agreement has been reached on patrolling arrangements along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in the India–China border areas, leading to disengagement and a resolution of the issues that arose in these areas in 2020’.

The Uncertain War: Decoding India’s Two-Front War with China and Pakistan

This article examines the two-front war challenge for India against China and Pakistan. It highlights difficulties nations have faced in managing simultaneous wars, emphasising the complexity such a situation imposes on national defence. The article explores collusion and collaboration between China and Pakistan and the resultant enhancement in military cooperation and interoperability, nuclear collusion, and infrastructure connectivity between the two countries. It also evaluates recent advancements in military modernisation by China and India’s corresponding efforts in enhancing its defence capabilities and border infrastructure. The analysis suggests that while the threat of a two-front war is real, it remains a possibility rather than an inevitability. The article concludes that India must maintain high vigilance, continue strengthening its military posture, and simultaneously engage in proactive diplomacy. A calibrated strategy that balances robust defence preparedness with sustained diplomatic engagement offers the most effective means of safeguarding national security and regional stability.

Sentiment Analysis for Indian Defence Ecosystem and Armed Forces

Today’s battlefields extend far beyond physical terrain into the digital realm, where military operations are won or lost through the power of perception. This study dives deep into how Sentiment Analysis (SA) has become a gamechanging intelligence asset for modern defence operations. When Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022, an extraordinary sentiment shift among Ukrainians was observed in public opinion. Analysis of public discourse on social media revealed a substantial transformation throughout the war with initial support for negotiations gradually giving way to increased resolve for continued resistance. This dramatic reversal, having deeply altered modern political outlook and military planning, compelled strategists to rethink the brass tacks. The strategic impact of SA on the conduct of military operations was further cemented during the Israel–Hamas conflict, where Israeli forces analysed over 400,000 Reddit conversations to identify emotional flashpoints and counter misinformation before it gained traction. As the operational landscape becomes increasingly asymmetrical, the application of SA in contemporary geopolitical theatres emerges as a substantial force multiplier, allowing defence strategies to shorten the OODA (Observe, Orient, Decide, Act) loop significantly. A qualitative research study on AI-based sentiment analysis for strategic and geopolitical significance, focused on the Indian defence ecosystem and armed forces, was conducted as part of this study, wherein responses from 88 service officers including CAPF officers and academia were recorded. Notably, 40 per cent of respondents found it ‘very challenging’ to stay updated with strategic information. Additionally, key geopolitical focus areas, including China (85 per cent) and Pakistan (80 per cent), were identified as priorities for sentiment monitoring. Some of the most advanced SA tools available were evaluated to explore these needs. Integrating SA in the overall Military Decision Making Process (MDMP) will enable the Indian Armed Forces to conduct proactive information dominance, neutralise adversarial narrative warfare and enhance strategic situational awareness. This study lays the groundwork for these advancements, offering a roadmap for integrating cutting-edge technology into national security effort.

Enhancing Foreign Language Expertise in the Indian Armed Forces: A Focus on Chinese Language Proficiency

Effective communication is paramount for military success in today’s globalised operations and diverse linguistic landscapes. Linguistic support has historically been a crucial component of military operations worldwide. This article explores measures for enhancing foreign language expertise in the Indian Armed Forces, with focus on Chinese language proficiency. It delves into research conducted in the United States (US), the United Kingdom (UK), Russia, Ukraine and China on: linguistic support for the forces; military translation; and the roles of translators, interpreters and research scholars. Thematic and content analysis methods are employed to address the research question: ‘How to enhance foreign language expertise in the Indian Armed Forces with a focus on Chinese language proficiency?’. The findings highlight the significant role of linguistic support in military operations, emphasising its core importance to combat capability. While the Indian Armed Forces have made strides in improving Chinese language proficiency among translators, interpreters and instructors, there remains a need for specialised translators and interpreters training in the military domain. Further research in ‘linguistic support for forces’ is essential to address challenges and build robust linguistic capacities. The article calls for the establishment of dedicated translation and interpretation institutes to meet the specific linguistic needs of the Indian Armed Forces. It underscores the importance of leveraging the expertise of serving and retired Chinese linguists and advocates for the development of specialised training programmes to cultivate proficient Chinese translators, interpreters, instructors, intelligence analysts and research scholars within the military. Multi-disciplinary collaboration among linguists, defence experts, artificial intelligence (AI) specialists and data scientists is essential to enhance research capabilities and understand the modernisation of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). The article also recommends creating a separate linguists’ cadre and recognising and incentivising Chinese language experts in the armed forces. By proposing strategies for knowledge exchange, indigenous capacity-building and the integration of emerging technologies, the article offers practical recommendations for enhancing linguistic support capabilities within the Indian Armed Forces, with special emphasis on the Chinese language.

India’s Defence Budget Dynamics: Budget Outlay and the Question of Imbalance

The evolution of cutting-edge technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and standoff weapons have presented new challenges to defence and security systems worldwide. The evolving nature of technological and information warfare has expanded the horizon of modern-day conflict and compelled all nations to re-evaluate and rethink their Research and Development (R&D), defence policies, expenditure and technological capabilities. In this endeavour, the process of capacity and capability enhancement of the Indian Armed Forces is one major obstacle that India encounters, considering its large number of troops. The salaries, pensions, maintenance and other expenses consume nearly 70 per cent of India’s defence budget, leaving insufficient funds for other sectors that require more investment. In this study, we have attempted to address the imbalance of India’s defence expenditure with respect to modern-day technological advancement and threat perceptions. The study argues that the synergy between manpower and technology, which is vital for India’s national security, can be attained by understanding the noteworthiness of defence expenditure, the large size of troops and the capital outlay incurred on them.

Rohit , L. Ram |
April-June 2025 |
Journal of Defence Studies

Editorial

Defence Diplomacy through the Prism of Soft Power: US–India Defence Partnership

India’s Defence Minister, Rajnath Singh’s mention of the term ‘Defence Diplomacy’ (DD) during his address at the Commander’s conference in April 2024,1 and its discussion in the Indian Defence Diplomacy: A Handbook published by India’s premier Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (MP-IDSA) in 2021,2 underscore its increasing traction in New Delhi’s policy circles. Even earlier in 2020, India’s External Affairs Minister, Dr S. Jaishankar had chosen to speak on the relationship between defence and diplomacy at the Second Manohar Parrikar Memorial Lecture.

Guiding Principles of Indo-US Strategic Partnership: Strategic Autonomy or Strategic Interest?

The Indo-US strategic partnership has been a long project that is soon going to be a quarter of a century old. While the Kickleighter Proposal of 1991 sowed the seeds of this partnership, their germination began with the March 2000 visit to India by the US President Bill Clinton. From 1991 till Clinton’s visit, there were good beginnings and unexpected pitfalls that prevented the growth of the strategic partnership. The most serious pitfall was, of course, India’s decision to go nuclear in 1998, and the Clinton Administration’s resolve to impose sanctions on India.

The Race for Tech Supremacy between US and China: Implications for the World, US and India

The unravelling race for tech supremacy, as a microcosm of the macro trade war between US and China, can be depicted as Tech Race 2.0. In some ways, this is akin to the Space Race that unfolded between the US and the erstwhile USSR in the 1950s and 1960s, which eventually turned in favour of the US, given its fundamentals being firmly grounded in democracy, freedom of speech and robust innovation and business ecosystems. Since China shares some of the key elements that the Soviet Union had, it is likely that history can be repeated provided the US is fully aware of the challenges emanating from China and takes necessary steps by investing in the state-of-the-art technologies. The implications of the US losing the race could be far-reaching not only for the US, but also for the entire global order built on the liberal principles and values. The same is applicable for India since it shares a border with China and the border conflict continues to persist. Therefore, it is imperative to save the global community from the dangers of authoritarian leaders and countries winning the race.

Balancing Strategic Partnerships and Sovereignty: The Impact of Technology Transfer Concerns on India–US Defence Cooperation

India–US defence cooperation has grown significantly, driven by shared interests in the Indo-Pacific region. However, technology transfer remains problematic due to India’s focus on strategic autonomy and US concerns over intellectual property and export controls. This article investigates the same within the context of Defence Technology and Trade Initiative (DTTI), exploring how technology transfer concerns affect joint defence efforts and the development of advanced military system. It also examines US regulatory restrictions, such as International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR), and their impact on technology sharing. Additionally, the article considers India’s ‘Make in India’ and ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ initiatives, which sometimes conflict with US technology protection expectations. The article suggests solutions, including flexible bilateral agreements and enhanced trust-building, to balance strategic partnerships with national sovereignty, aiming to resolve technology transfer issues and maximise the potential of India–US defence collaboration in the Indo-Pacific region.

India–US Defence Cooperation: Opportunity to Achieve Technological Superiority for Indian Armed Forces

Over the years, India has set up comprehensive infrastructure for the manufacture of defence equipment. Although considerable growth has taken place in indigenous capabilities, India is largely dependent on foreign technologies for the high-tech equipment. However, despite Transfer of Technology from foreign countries, the development of indigenous technologies has met with limited success. In the last two decades, India’s relations with the US have become stronger and India has been designated by the US as a ‘Major Defence Partner’. There have been a number of agreements between the two countries for collaborations in various fields including defence technologies, with iCET being the most promising initiative. This provides India with an excellent opportunity to achieve technological excellence with collaboration and co-development with the US. However, there are many challenges which may be an impediment to such development. This article examines India’s need for technology transfer, track record of technology transfers from the US, analyses the current agreements, identifies opportunities and challenges and recommends a way forward.

Enhancing Interoperability and Strategic Convergence: India–US Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific

The strategic partnership between India and the United States has increasingly focussed on joint Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) efforts in the Indian Ocean Region. Cemented by India’s 2016 designation as a ‘Major Defence Partner’, this collaboration now includes joint military exercises, port visits and disaster relief missions. Given the Indo- Pacific region’s importance due to its population and key shipping routes, improved military interoperability and logistical coordination are crucial for tackling climate-related disasters. India’s strong HADR capabilities and capacity-building, along with the strategic support of the United States, have enhanced their bilateral and multilateral cooperation, vital for addressing regional challenges and maintaining stability in the Indo-Pacific.

Defending Cyberspace: India–US Joint Efforts Against Cybercrime

This article examines the evolving landscape of cybercrime and emphasises the essential role of international cooperation, particularly between India and the United States (US). Considering the significant economic and national security repercussions of cyber threats such as ransomware attacks, effectively addressing cybercrime requires coordinated, dedicated and concerted efforts from all nations. India and the US are actively engaged in both bilateral and multilateral forums to adequately tackle the diverse and evolving challenges of cybercrime. Despite some limitations in specific areas of cooperation, both countries have remained committed to responding to cybercrime with robust domestic measures and a coordinated global approach to counter criminal syndicates.

Analysing India–US Cooperation in the Context of Changing Nuclear Order

The article aims to analyse the developments and challenges in the India– US defence cooperation in the face of the ongoing decay of the nuclear order. While the defence cooperation has grown manifold, it is pertinent to understand the pathways in which India and the US can cooperate towards building a stable nuclear order. The effort should be to minimise the risk of any accidental nuclear war in the wake of heightened tensions and heated conventional warfare in the current geopolitical landscape, incorporating missile forces, weapons of mass destruction, tactical nuclear weapons, and others. The article begins with an outline of the India–US defence cooperation followed by an understanding of the Indian stance on disarmament and nuclear treaties; the evolution of the India–US nuclear cooperation; an overview of the changing global nuclear order and its impact on the conventional warfare; the perceptions of India and the US on nuclear stability; prospects and challenges in defence cooperation against threats to nuclear stability; and the way forward to cooperate on building deterrence and nuclear stability.

Indo-US Defence Cooperation: Punching Below Its Potential

India–US bilateral relations have witnessed several upheavals over the past seven decades, however, significant shifts in global geopolitics have led to growing proximity between the world’s two largest democracies. This article analyses Indo-US defence cooperation since India’s independence and argues that while the bilateral relationship has the scope and potential to emerge as a powerful and wide-ranging relationship, it is still waiting for its time in the sun. To some extent, this can be attributed to Cold War dynamics, India’s independent pursuit of its strategic programmes and the resultant technology denial regimes put in place by the United States, however both the countries have also failed to capitalise on several opportunities to strengthen their bilateral defence relationship. Thus, while the relationship has immense potential, it has largely been a tale of punching below its potential.

Rahul Manohar Yelwe , Arun Vishwanathan |
January-March 2025 |
Journal of Defence Studies

Customised Defence Agreements: Foundation for a Strong Indo-US Defence Partnership

The defence cooperation between India and the United States has been deepening. This is largely attributed to the signing of four key agreements, namely the General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA), the Logistics Exchange Memorandum of Agreement (LEMOA), the Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA), and the Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA). Prior to these agreements, arms trade and technology transfers were virtually impossible, as the US Congress had blocked them. Before these deals were inked, India’s major procurements from the US were confined to non-lethal systems, like transport aircraft, heavy lifter helicopters, and maritime patrol aircraft. With the basic agreements in place, there is an increased scope for the US to not only transfer advanced systems and technology to India but also to jointly produce them in India. From the point of view of Washington, this is a major shift, given that earlier not only had US denied its own weapons and advanced technology transfer to India but it also prevented other countries from providing even civilian technology. The belief then was that India could use these technology transfers for its missile development programme, which could possibly prove detrimental to the US’ national interests. Cut to present, there has been a considerable degree of convergence in terms of security interests, and the above-mentioned agreements are well placed to achieve those objectives.

Joshy M. Paul |
January-March 2025 |
Journal of Defence Studies

Sailing on the Seven Seas: Indo-US Strategic Partnership in the Indo-Pacific

The Indo-Pacific is the primary geography of the Indo-US defence cooperation. In the last two decades, both sides have deepened their strategic relationship. Maritime cooperation is the hallmark of Indo-US defence ties. India and the US are members of the Quad and American drones are bolstering India’s naval capabilities. India is participating in the US-led maritime security efforts like the Combined Maritime Forces. The ties are strong to the extent where American vessels are servicing at the Indian shipyards. However, the relationship is not without its challenges too. India’s scepticism about the American credibility and the isolationist turn in the US politics do present dilemmas in the relationship.

History of Cold War Estrangement to Strategic Partnership and the Evolution of India–US Defence Cooperation

Indo-US relations witnessed considerable swings during the first five decades post India’s independence, shaped by geopolitical challenges and Cold War dynamics. Defence cooperation between the two nations began in 1962, when India, confronting conflict with China, sought assistance from President Kennedy. However, a deep rift developed as the US aligned with Pakistan during the 1971 Indo-Pak War and deteriorated further after India’s nuclear tests. Despite these setbacks, the turn of the 21st century marked a shift towards engagement, leading to a steady progression towards a strategic partnership. Over time, mutual interests, regional security concerns, and India’s growing global stature contributed to strengthening defence cooperation. The world has transitioned into a new era of strategic rivalry, where the China factor is driving India and the United States towards closer cooperation. This article explores the historical evolution of Indo-US defence relations, analysing the transition from Cold War estrangement to strategic partnership.

Guest Editorial