Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses
मनोहर पर्रिकर रक्षा अध्ययन एवं विश्लेषण संस्थान

Journal of Defence Studies

The Tribal Connect to Maoist Insurgency in India: The Historical Context and Alleviation Measures by the Government

 Left Wing Extremism (LWE) or Maoism in India has been an ongoing internal security challenge since the late 1960s. The current phase of this insurgency has its ground zero in the forests of Dandakaranya (DK) in general and in the Bastar division of Chhattisgarh in particular. The region forms a part of the resource-rich tribal belt in central-eastern India. Tribals constitute the majority of rank and file of Maoists. The driving force for local tribals to fall prey to Maoism is the sense of deep-rooted alienation that these people suffer from. The article delves into the historical roots of tribal alienation that originated a couple of centuries ago during the colonial era and continues in present times under different manifestations. It is pertinent to possess a thorough background knowledge of tribal alienation so as to be able to evolve policies and programmes towards a long-term resolution of Maoist challenge, which is certainly beyond a security-centric approach. In addition, the article also analyses statutes and government initiatives to include their implementation, challenges and impact towards alleviating tribal alienation. The region of study is pan-India in general and the Bastar division of Chhattisgarh in particular. Read More

The Political Economy of South Korea’s Arms Trade with India: Challenges and Prospects

 South Korea’s rapid rise as a manufacturing powerhouse and a leading export-oriented economy was made possible due to the active role of the ‘developmental state’ in the country. Despite adopting several neoliberal policies after the devastating Asian financial crisis of 1997, the South Korean state did not fully abandon its role in the country’s economic development. In recent years, selling of military hardware has emerged as one of the ‘new engines of economic growth’ for this export-oriented nation. Furthermore, South Korea’s economic and strategic relations with India have developed significantly, particularly after the end of the Cold War. The arms trade between the two countries has also grown notably. While India’s developing economic and strategic relations with South Korea are well-documented, there is a lack of literature on New Delhi’s increasing arms trade with Seoul. This article explains the challenges and prospects of South Korea’s trade of weapons with India. Read More

The Budgetary Conundrum of the Indian Armed Forces: A Military Perspective

 India’s defence budget is a subject of intense scrutiny and debate, drawing the attention of a diverse range of stakeholders, including economists, defence experts and policymakers. The defence budget must cater for the long-term requirements of defence forces, their equipping philosophy, modernisation requirements and the aspirations of the rank and file of the organisation. This article aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the key aspects of defence budgeting, allocation and expenditure, with a particular focus on the perspectives of the defence establishments as the end-users of the budget. The article is broadly divided into two parts. The first part examines the quantitative aspects of the defence budget, delving into the composition of the overall allocation, the relative shares of the three armed forces, and the distribution between revenue and capital expenditures. The analysis reveals that while the nominal defence budget has been increasing over the years, the share of defence spending in the central government’s total expenditure has been declining, raising concerns about the adequacy of resources to meet the long-term requirements of the defence forces. The second part of the article undertakes a qualitative analysis of the defence budgeting process, exploring the challenges and constraints faced by the defence establishments. These include the need to balance manpower costs with equipment procurement and modernisation, the impact of rising inflation on the purchasing power of the defence budget, and the implications of the revenue–capital expenditure mix on the overall readiness and combat effectiveness of the armed forces. Read More

The Evolution and Future of Mobile Artillery: Technological Advances, History and Future of Artillery Warfare

 This article explores the evolution of mobile artillery, from oxen-drawn cannons and camel-mounted swivel guns to today’s self-propelled, precision-guided systems. It highlights how battlefield mobility, rapid fire-and-move tactics, and integration with digital command networks have made mobile artillery indispensable in modern warfare. Drawing lessons from recent conflicts like the Russia–Ukraine war and the Azerbaijan–Armenia clashes, this article analyses how mobile artillery—augmented by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), smart munitions and autonomous logistics—has adapted to fast-paced, multi-domain operations. The study underscores mobile artillery’s unique role as a survivable, flexible and cost-effective firepower solution amid evolving threats and terrain-driven challenges. Read More

Clamour for Going Nuclear Gains Traction in South Korea

 The nuclear issue has been simmering in South Korea for quite some time. During Park Chung-hee’s regime, there was a serious move to revisit the country’s nuclear option as a means of deterrence, but the US succeeded in dissuading the regime from pursuing it. However, as the North Korean threat escalated, the nuclear issue as a deterrence strategy regained focus. This coincided with the diminishing of trust on US nuclear deterrence or perception thereof. However, a policy reversal on the nuclear issue in South Korea was never easy as domestic advocates and opponents were never able to reach a consensus. Several imponderables surfaced and were debated. These include the fear of international sanctions, repercussions from the withdrawal of the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), domino effect, negative impact on the South Korean economy and lack of political consensus, which came in the way of a serious rethink to pursue a nuclear path. The onus lies on the US to provide reassurance, through its extended nuclear deterrence strategy, to dissuade South Korea from entertaining nuclear thought in the future. Read More

Editorial

 I am pleased to present to the readers the fourth issue of 2025, which brings together five insightful articles, three commentaries and three book reviews. I would also like to take this opportunity to inform our readers about a special issue planned for 2026. The title of the special issue is “The Year of Reforms: Reshaping India’s Defence for the Decade Ahead”; contributions are invited for the same. Read More

The Mistaken History of the Korean War: What We Got Wrong Then and Now by Paul M. Edwards

 For Koreans, the Korean War was undoubtedly a watershed moment, which cemented the bifurcation of Korean Peninsula that continues more than seventy years after the fact. It is impossible to segregate the Korean War from the history of United States. US had, after all, provided for around 5.7 million personnel in the UN initiative against North Korean ingression into South Korea. Read More

The Arctic Frontier: Geopolitical Chessboard of Major Powers?

 The Arctic region, once considered a distant and inhospitable corner of the world, is rapidly emerging as a focal point in global geopolitics. Harvard International Review (HIR) argues that “nations have begun to engage in a modern gold rush over the region’s unclaimed territory, natural resources and strategic position”.1 This transformation is driven by a confluence of factors: the region’s substantial mineral wealth,2 the strategic importance of newly accessible maritime shipping lanes,3 the unique opportunities for scientific discovery,4 and the broader implications for global politics.5 As the Arctic ice cover diminishes at an unprecedented rate due to climate change, the region’s significance is magnified, drawing the attention of major global powers and reshaping international relations. Its vast mineral resources are at the heart of the Arctic’s growing importance. Estimates suggest that the region harbours a significant portion of the world’s untapped reserves of oil and natural gas, with projections indicating that the Arctic could contain about 13 per cent (90 billion barrels) of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30 per cent of its undiscovered natural gas (USGC).6 These figures highlight the Arctic as a critical energy security and economic opportunity area, particularly as traditional reserves in more accessible regions become depleted. Read More

Outer Space as a Global Commons: Evolving Governance and the Challenges of the 21st Century

 Space has long been considered a domain beyond territorial claims, governed by international treaties that emphasised cooperation and peaceful exploration. However, in the face of rapid technological advances, the increasing involvement of private entities in space, and the rise of new space powers, the concept of space as a global commons is being fundamentally redefined. While the 1967 Outer Space Treaty (OST) laid the foundational principles for the peaceful use of outer space, it has become increasingly inadequate in addressing the complex dynamics of 21st-century space exploration. This commentary explores the challenges and opportunities in rethinking the governance structures for outer space, emphasising the need for updated international legal frameworks to safeguard space as a domain for the benefit of humanity. Read More

A NATO Sans USA

 The newly elected American President’s constant threat on pulling America out of NATO labelling them as potential liabilities has not gone well with its European partners. His far from charitable description that he would cease defending allies that spend less than the stipulated percentage on defence has got the nations thinking on an alternate arrangement if the USA chooses to abandon the alliance. The Europeans should quit underestimating themselves and brace up for joint efforts to ward off American bullying. The Europeans are undoubtedly technological powerhouses and all have standing armies which cross-exercise at regular intervals and keep themselves battle-ready. It is necessary for NATO to step out on its own and create its own individuality sans the USA. Read More

Enhancing Ballistic Missile Defence: Comparing AI-Integrated Systems with Traditional Approaches

 The Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) systems play a significant role in national security, and are designed to detect, track and intercept incoming missiles. Beginning in the 1950s, they have undergone rapid evolution in consonance with the advancement in technology. Artificial Intelligence (AI), in particular, has proven to be a transformative force in bolstering the capabilities of BMD systems. Against this backdrop, this article analyses the efficiency and effectiveness of AI-integrated missile defence systems compared to traditional non-AI systems under different operational conditions and scenarios. Leveraging machine learning algorithms, neural networks and real-time data processing, AI increases detection accuracy, reduces false positives and improves interception success rates. The article relies on quantitative analysis based on t-tests, statistical performance analysis and simulations under diverse conditions. The findings indicate that AI-integrated systems significantly outperform traditional systems in detection latency, false positive rates and interception success. Furthermore, the article analyses the potentially vulnerable sites, challenges and ethical considerations related to AI integration in missile defence, stressing the need for human oversight in the decision-making process. This research underscores the strategic advantages and limitations of AI-enhancing defence capabilities against advanced missile threats. Read More

Safeguarding National Interests: Evaluating the Risks of Defence – Civilian Airport Proximity

 This article examines the risks posed by the proximity of military facilities to civilian airports, particularly in the context of the Indian Air Force (IAF) as well as Indian Naval Air Station sites adjacent to commercial hubs. It highlights concerns regarding unauthorised access to sensitive information, infrastructure and potential terrorist threats. The article advocates for relocating civil installations away from military airports to bolster national security. Given the rapid expansion of both civilian and military aviation, the current joint-use model will become increasingly strained, leading to operational inefficiencies and heightened security risks. Implementing advanced monitoring, enhanced cybersecurity protocols, and stronger coordination between civilian and military authorities is essential in the short-term. However, relying solely on security enhancements within existing limitations offers only a partial solution, as the continued growth of air traffic will exacerbate congestion and security concerns. A phased transition towards dedicated civilian and military airport infrastructure remains the most viable long-term approach to safeguarding national security while ensuring sustainable aviation growth. This article underscores the importance of balancing immediate security needs with long-term infrastructure planning to address the evolving challenges of the aviation sector. There is a need for stringent security measures, including enhanced monitoring and cybersecurity protocols, and cooperation between civilian and military authorities. This article also addresses technological vulnerabilities such as electronic eavesdropping and GPS spoofing, thereby urging the development of strategies to mitigate these risks. Read More

India’s Quest for Self-Reliance in Defence Sector: Reality Check, Challenges and Way Ahead

 Given the prevalence of numerous security challenges, India’s high dependence on other countries for its defence requirements stands out as a serious vulnerability in the national security calculus. In 2024, India was the world’s second largest importer of arms, just behind Ukraine, with an 8.3 per cent share of global arms import between 2020 and 2024. This situation can be largely attributed to the absence of a long-term national security strategy due to lack of political direction marked by narrow perspective, absence of indigenous research and pursuit of technology unaligned with military objectives. While India did make attempts to achieve self-reliance, the outcome was not encouraging due to the domination of the public sector entities coupled with bureaucratic gridlocks. To revitalise India’s armament industry, the present government, under ‘Atmanirbharta/Make in India’ programme has initiated slew of defence reforms which include rationalisation of the acquisition and procurement procedures, restructuring of the key bodies and the establishment of Defence Industrial Corridors (DICs). While the Indian defence industry has made significant progress, including increase in defence exports, it still has a long way to traverse. The indigenisation achieved so far pertains to low-technology items, while many initiatives remain non-starters. To overcome these challenges, India requires a National Security Strategy, robust ecosystem to scale up the overall industrial capacity, deregulation and initiation of a second round of defence reforms. Read More

Manned Fighter and Unmanned Systems: Future is Collaborative

 The application of unmanned systems during recent conflicts has stimulated an alternative thought in military capability. While these systems have accrued reasonable tactical and operational successes, their ability to do so independently is a matter of debate. The operational imperatives indicate a necessity to invest in these capabilities, but in collaboration with the manned fighters. Unmanned systems exhibit some fundamental flaws when evaluated through the prism of ‘Nature’, and ‘Morals and Ethics’ of War. Since war fundamentally is a means of human conflict resolution, a human element would have to remain as the chief protagonist at all the levels of war. Similarly, in the Indian context that is characterised as No War No Peace (NWNP), complete military solutions to various security scenarios are possible only through the complementary application of manned and unmanned aircraft. At the operational level, when assessed through the seminal concepts of OODA (Observe, Orient, Decide and Act) loop as well as combat effectiveness, risk, and cost, the capabilities of unmanned systems can be maximised through their application in conjunction with manned fighters. Globally, to harness this potential, there is an impetus on 6th generation fighter aircraft, which are inherently MUM-T capable. These programmes foster human–machine teaming in which humans would be responsible for the higher cognitive functions [combat strategy design, command and control (C2), etc.], while less demanding cognitive functions (tactical manoeuvres, observation, etc.) would be left to UAVs/ UCAVs. At the current pace, in this field, India will remain at least one generation behind all major powers, including China. Therefore, to curtail this trend, and to boost indigenous ecosystem and make it export-worthy, in short-term (till 2030), for stabilisation of LCA and realisation of AMCA and CATS, primary focus should be on manned fighters with a proportional focus on unmanned systems as per their identified complementary roles (ISR, limited strike, high-risk, etc.). In the long-term (beyond 2030), the focus should shift to a collaborative approach to achieve the ‘Collaborative Peak’ of manned–unmanned teaming by 2047 (Amrit Kaal). Read More

Chinese Human Intelligence (HUMINT) Through Public Diplomacy in South Asia: A Critical Assessment

 China’s Human Intelligence (HUMINT) collection through public diplomacy has been instrumental in overcoming its ‘century of humiliation’ and emergence as a global economic and military power for pursuing her ‘Middle Kingdom Dream’ without raising major alarms. With deep pockets and surplus construction capabilities, China has placed its citizens and proxies at strategic chokepoints of the world by using innocuous-looking ‘thousand grains of sand, mosaic approach, human wave, or citizen spying’ methods for HUMINT collection. The trillion-dollar Belt and Road Initiative has further facilitated China’s economic growth and global expansion through HUMINT operations. As China shifts its focus to the South Asian region in the 21st century to support its growth engine, it inevitably affects India’s strategic interests. India, with comparable public diplomacy assets, must implement a comprehensive policy to enhance its HUMINT capabilities. Learning from China’s approach is crucial for India to counter China’s expanding influence and protect its strategic interests. Read More

North Korea’s Increasing Military Cooperation with Russia: Implications for India

 Since the beginning of the war in Ukraine in 2022, the military engagement between North Korea and Russia has significantly increased. Apparently, the signing of a ‘Comprehensive Strategic Partnership’ agreement with Moscow in June 2024 would further enhance the military capabilities of Pyongyang. On the other hand, India’s diplomatic relationship with North Korea has continued under the ‘Act East Policy’ of the Narendra Modi government. Moreover, in the backdrop of New Delhi’s new strategic alignment in the ‘Indo-Pacific’ with Quad partners, India has not abandoned Pyongyang. However, North Korea’s nuclear proliferation activities with Pakistan has been an issue of deep concern to New Delhi. In this regard, the Russian space, nuclear and military technologies may reach Islamabad through Pyongyang. Russian support to North Korea can also complicate India’s relations with the Quad members as New Delhi has a close partnership with Moscow. Therefore, there can be military and strategic implications for India as a result of the deepening military alliance between North Korea and Russia. Read More

China’s Rising Foreign Ministry: Practices and Representations of Assertive Diplomacy

 Foreign ministries play a crucial role in shaping a country’s behaviour on the global stage. As the primary institutions responsible for managing international relations, they engage in diplomacy and develop and implement foreign policies, representing the nation’s interests abroad. Foreign ministries coordinate diplomatic efforts, negotiate treaties, and engage in dialogue with other countries, international organisations and non-state actors. They also analyse global trends and provide strategic advice to government leaders, ensuring that national policies align with international realities. An essential function of foreign ministries is to protect and promote their country’s economic, security and political interests. This involves fostering bilateral and multilateral relations and managing crises, conflicts and peace-building efforts. Foreign ministries maintain direct communication channels through embassies and consulates with foreign governments and citizens, facilitating cultural exchanges and mutual understanding. Read More

Pre-emption, Precision and Perception: Strategic and Doctrinal Lessons for India from Operations Rising Lion and Midnight Hammer

 Warfare today is characterised not merely by territory gained or adversaries neutralised, but by the ability to shape perceptions, compress timelines and dominate across multiple domains. Contemporary wars have witnessed a tectonic shift in the goals of war, the rules of war, the players and the instruments of war, reshaping its character and unlimiting its boundaries. It is an era of C5ISR-based saturation stand-off attacks with space-based NPT and AI empowering precision strikes, while quantum communication makes the channels secure. Technology is transforming the character and the future of warfare. Read More

Kautilya’s Arthashastra: The Intellectual Foundations of Ancient Indian Political Thought

 The intellectual foundations and the strategic vocabulary of contemporary geopolitical discourse is characterised by two elements—its heavy borrowing from the ancient civilisations of the Near East, Greece, Rome, and even China; and a near complete omission of anything Indian. If the ‘axial age’1 in these geographies represented a critical, reflective turn of transcendental significance to social, political and philosophical affairs, the contemporaneous Indian civilisational experience can offer worthy contributions, in both confirming the universality of strategic traditions abroad and establishing its cultural peculiarity. Perhaps, the most consequential output (from the standpoint of the ancient Indian state and statecraft) of the intense cultural interactions between different philosophical and intellectual traditions in India, emerging since the 6th century BCE, is Kautilya’s Arthashastra—a classic Indian treatise on statecraft. Read More
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