Journal of Defence Studies

Chinese Human Intelligence (HUMINT) Through Public Diplomacy in South Asia: A Critical Assessment

China’s Human Intelligence (HUMINT) collection through public diplomacy has been instrumental in overcoming its ‘century of humiliation’ and emergence as a global economic and military power for pursuing her ‘Middle Kingdom Dream’ without raising major alarms. With deep pockets and surplus construction capabilities, China has placed its citizens and proxies at strategic chokepoints of the world by using innocuous-looking ‘thousand grains of sand, mosaic approach, human wave, or citizen spying’ methods for HUMINT collection. The trillion-dollar Belt and Road Initiative has further facilitated China’s economic growth and global expansion through HUMINT operations. As China shifts its focus to the South Asian region in the 21st century to support its growth engine, it inevitably affects India’s strategic interests. India, with comparable public diplomacy assets, must implement a comprehensive policy to enhance its HUMINT capabilities. Learning from China’s approach is crucial for India to counter China’s expanding influence and protect its strategic interests.

D.C.S. Mayal |
July-September 2025 |
Journal of Defence Studies

Editorial

Vivek Chadha |
July-September 2025 |
Journal of Defence Studies

North Korea’s Increasing Military Cooperation with Russia: Implications for India

Since the beginning of the war in Ukraine in 2022, the military engagement between North Korea and Russia has significantly increased. Apparently, the signing of a ‘Comprehensive Strategic Partnership’ agreement with Moscow in June 2024 would further enhance the military capabilities of Pyongyang. On the other hand, India’s diplomatic relationship with North Korea has continued under the ‘Act East Policy’ of the Narendra Modi government. Moreover, in the backdrop of New Delhi’s new strategic alignment in the ‘Indo-Pacific’ with Quad partners, India has not abandoned Pyongyang. However, North Korea’s nuclear proliferation activities with Pakistan has been an issue of deep concern to New Delhi. In this regard, the Russian space, nuclear and military technologies may reach Islamabad through Pyongyang. Russian support to North Korea can also complicate India’s relations with the Quad members as New Delhi has a close partnership with Moscow. Therefore, there can be military and strategic implications for India as a result of the deepening military alliance between North Korea and Russia.

China’s Rising Foreign Ministry: Practices and Representations of Assertive Diplomacy

Foreign ministries play a crucial role in shaping a country’s behaviour on the global stage. As the primary institutions responsible for managing international relations, they engage in diplomacy and develop and implement foreign policies, representing the nation’s interests abroad. Foreign ministries coordinate diplomatic efforts, negotiate treaties, and engage in dialogue with other countries, international organisations and non-state actors. They also analyse global trends and provide strategic advice to government leaders, ensuring that national policies align with international realities. An essential function of foreign ministries is to protect and promote their country’s economic, security and political interests. This involves fostering bilateral and multilateral relations and managing crises, conflicts and peace-building efforts. Foreign ministries maintain direct communication channels through embassies and consulates with foreign governments and citizens, facilitating cultural exchanges and mutual understanding.

Pre-emption, Precision and Perception: Strategic and Doctrinal Lessons for India from Operations Rising Lion and Midnight Hammer

Warfare today is characterised not merely by territory gained or adversaries neutralised, but by the ability to shape perceptions, compress timelines and dominate across multiple domains. Contemporary wars have witnessed a tectonic shift in the goals of war, the rules of war, the players and the instruments of war, reshaping its character and unlimiting its boundaries. It is an era of C5ISR-based saturation stand-off attacks with space-based NPT and AI empowering precision strikes, while quantum communication makes the channels secure. Technology is transforming the character and the future of warfare.

Kautilya’s Arthashastra: The Intellectual Foundations of Ancient Indian Political Thought

The intellectual foundations and the strategic vocabulary of contemporary geopolitical discourse is characterised by two elements—its heavy borrowing from the ancient civilisations of the Near East, Greece, Rome, and even China; and a near complete omission of anything Indian. If the ‘axial age’1 in these geographies represented a critical, reflective turn of transcendental significance to social, political and philosophical affairs, the contemporaneous Indian civilisational experience can offer worthy contributions, in both confirming the universality of strategic traditions abroad and establishing its cultural peculiarity. Perhaps, the most consequential output (from the standpoint of the ancient Indian state and statecraft) of the intense cultural interactions between different philosophical and intellectual traditions in India, emerging since the 6th century BCE, is Kautilya’s Arthashastra—a classic Indian treatise on statecraft.

Multi-Domain Operations: Air Force as the Central Node

The modern battlespace is heavily influenced by technology and it has forced modern militaries to reflect on the question, ‘What comes after Joint.’1 There is growing recognition that in the contemporary operational environment, focus on ‘joint’ is no longer sufficient. The character of warfare has undergone a profound transformation; the modern battlespace has become an intricate, multifaceted environment where success is contingent upon the harmonious orchestration of capabilities spanning diverse operational domains.2 While the term ‘joint’ usually signifies integration at the operational level, ‘multidomain’ aims to achieve integration across all levels—from strategic to tactical.3 Multi-Domain Operations (MDOs) have evolved as a method to integrate and synchronise activities across land, sea, air, space, cyber and information domains to achieve strategic objectives. The ability to seamlessly operate across these domains is crucial for military success in any contemporary and future conflict. This commentary argues that air forces are best suited to play the predominant role in these operations due to their advanced technological capabilities, strategic flexibility, robust command and control structures, and a culture of innovation. The commentary will dwell on these attributes and their implications for MDOs, drawing on historical evidences and will also carry out a comparative analysis with other military branches—namely the army and navy—highlighting the distinct advantages of air force in conduct of MDOs.

Can India and China Break Free from the Triangle of Conflict at the Border?

On 21 October 2024, during a special briefing on Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Russia, India’s Foreign Secretary, Shri Vikram Misri stated, ‘Over the last several weeks, Indian and Chinese diplomatic and military negotiators have been in close contact with each other in various forums. As a result of these discussions, an agreement has been reached on patrolling arrangements along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in the India–China border areas, leading to disengagement and a resolution of the issues that arose in these areas in 2020’.

The Uncertain War: Decoding India’s Two-Front War with China and Pakistan

This article examines the two-front war challenge for India against China and Pakistan. It highlights difficulties nations have faced in managing simultaneous wars, emphasising the complexity such a situation imposes on national defence. The article explores collusion and collaboration between China and Pakistan and the resultant enhancement in military cooperation and interoperability, nuclear collusion, and infrastructure connectivity between the two countries. It also evaluates recent advancements in military modernisation by China and India’s corresponding efforts in enhancing its defence capabilities and border infrastructure. The analysis suggests that while the threat of a two-front war is real, it remains a possibility rather than an inevitability. The article concludes that India must maintain high vigilance, continue strengthening its military posture, and simultaneously engage in proactive diplomacy. A calibrated strategy that balances robust defence preparedness with sustained diplomatic engagement offers the most effective means of safeguarding national security and regional stability.

Sentiment Analysis for Indian Defence Ecosystem and Armed Forces

Today’s battlefields extend far beyond physical terrain into the digital realm, where military operations are won or lost through the power of perception. This study dives deep into how Sentiment Analysis (SA) has become a gamechanging intelligence asset for modern defence operations. When Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022, an extraordinary sentiment shift among Ukrainians was observed in public opinion. Analysis of public discourse on social media revealed a substantial transformation throughout the war with initial support for negotiations gradually giving way to increased resolve for continued resistance. This dramatic reversal, having deeply altered modern political outlook and military planning, compelled strategists to rethink the brass tacks. The strategic impact of SA on the conduct of military operations was further cemented during the Israel–Hamas conflict, where Israeli forces analysed over 400,000 Reddit conversations to identify emotional flashpoints and counter misinformation before it gained traction. As the operational landscape becomes increasingly asymmetrical, the application of SA in contemporary geopolitical theatres emerges as a substantial force multiplier, allowing defence strategies to shorten the OODA (Observe, Orient, Decide, Act) loop significantly. A qualitative research study on AI-based sentiment analysis for strategic and geopolitical significance, focused on the Indian defence ecosystem and armed forces, was conducted as part of this study, wherein responses from 88 service officers including CAPF officers and academia were recorded. Notably, 40 per cent of respondents found it ‘very challenging’ to stay updated with strategic information. Additionally, key geopolitical focus areas, including China (85 per cent) and Pakistan (80 per cent), were identified as priorities for sentiment monitoring. Some of the most advanced SA tools available were evaluated to explore these needs. Integrating SA in the overall Military Decision Making Process (MDMP) will enable the Indian Armed Forces to conduct proactive information dominance, neutralise adversarial narrative warfare and enhance strategic situational awareness. This study lays the groundwork for these advancements, offering a roadmap for integrating cutting-edge technology into national security effort.

Enhancing Foreign Language Expertise in the Indian Armed Forces: A Focus on Chinese Language Proficiency

Effective communication is paramount for military success in today’s globalised operations and diverse linguistic landscapes. Linguistic support has historically been a crucial component of military operations worldwide. This article explores measures for enhancing foreign language expertise in the Indian Armed Forces, with focus on Chinese language proficiency. It delves into research conducted in the United States (US), the United Kingdom (UK), Russia, Ukraine and China on: linguistic support for the forces; military translation; and the roles of translators, interpreters and research scholars. Thematic and content analysis methods are employed to address the research question: ‘How to enhance foreign language expertise in the Indian Armed Forces with a focus on Chinese language proficiency?’. The findings highlight the significant role of linguistic support in military operations, emphasising its core importance to combat capability. While the Indian Armed Forces have made strides in improving Chinese language proficiency among translators, interpreters and instructors, there remains a need for specialised translators and interpreters training in the military domain. Further research in ‘linguistic support for forces’ is essential to address challenges and build robust linguistic capacities. The article calls for the establishment of dedicated translation and interpretation institutes to meet the specific linguistic needs of the Indian Armed Forces. It underscores the importance of leveraging the expertise of serving and retired Chinese linguists and advocates for the development of specialised training programmes to cultivate proficient Chinese translators, interpreters, instructors, intelligence analysts and research scholars within the military. Multi-disciplinary collaboration among linguists, defence experts, artificial intelligence (AI) specialists and data scientists is essential to enhance research capabilities and understand the modernisation of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). The article also recommends creating a separate linguists’ cadre and recognising and incentivising Chinese language experts in the armed forces. By proposing strategies for knowledge exchange, indigenous capacity-building and the integration of emerging technologies, the article offers practical recommendations for enhancing linguistic support capabilities within the Indian Armed Forces, with special emphasis on the Chinese language.

India’s Defence Budget Dynamics: Budget Outlay and the Question of Imbalance

The evolution of cutting-edge technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and standoff weapons have presented new challenges to defence and security systems worldwide. The evolving nature of technological and information warfare has expanded the horizon of modern-day conflict and compelled all nations to re-evaluate and rethink their Research and Development (R&D), defence policies, expenditure and technological capabilities. In this endeavour, the process of capacity and capability enhancement of the Indian Armed Forces is one major obstacle that India encounters, considering its large number of troops. The salaries, pensions, maintenance and other expenses consume nearly 70 per cent of India’s defence budget, leaving insufficient funds for other sectors that require more investment. In this study, we have attempted to address the imbalance of India’s defence expenditure with respect to modern-day technological advancement and threat perceptions. The study argues that the synergy between manpower and technology, which is vital for India’s national security, can be attained by understanding the noteworthiness of defence expenditure, the large size of troops and the capital outlay incurred on them.

Rohit , L. Ram |
April-June 2025 |
Journal of Defence Studies

Editorial

Defence Diplomacy through the Prism of Soft Power: US–India Defence Partnership

India’s Defence Minister, Rajnath Singh’s mention of the term ‘Defence Diplomacy’ (DD) during his address at the Commander’s conference in April 2024,1 and its discussion in the Indian Defence Diplomacy: A Handbook published by India’s premier Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (MP-IDSA) in 2021,2 underscore its increasing traction in New Delhi’s policy circles. Even earlier in 2020, India’s External Affairs Minister, Dr S. Jaishankar had chosen to speak on the relationship between defence and diplomacy at the Second Manohar Parrikar Memorial Lecture.

Guiding Principles of Indo-US Strategic Partnership: Strategic Autonomy or Strategic Interest?

The Indo-US strategic partnership has been a long project that is soon going to be a quarter of a century old. While the Kickleighter Proposal of 1991 sowed the seeds of this partnership, their germination began with the March 2000 visit to India by the US President Bill Clinton. From 1991 till Clinton’s visit, there were good beginnings and unexpected pitfalls that prevented the growth of the strategic partnership. The most serious pitfall was, of course, India’s decision to go nuclear in 1998, and the Clinton Administration’s resolve to impose sanctions on India.

The Race for Tech Supremacy between US and China: Implications for the World, US and India

The unravelling race for tech supremacy, as a microcosm of the macro trade war between US and China, can be depicted as Tech Race 2.0. In some ways, this is akin to the Space Race that unfolded between the US and the erstwhile USSR in the 1950s and 1960s, which eventually turned in favour of the US, given its fundamentals being firmly grounded in democracy, freedom of speech and robust innovation and business ecosystems. Since China shares some of the key elements that the Soviet Union had, it is likely that history can be repeated provided the US is fully aware of the challenges emanating from China and takes necessary steps by investing in the state-of-the-art technologies. The implications of the US losing the race could be far-reaching not only for the US, but also for the entire global order built on the liberal principles and values. The same is applicable for India since it shares a border with China and the border conflict continues to persist. Therefore, it is imperative to save the global community from the dangers of authoritarian leaders and countries winning the race.

Balancing Strategic Partnerships and Sovereignty: The Impact of Technology Transfer Concerns on India–US Defence Cooperation

India–US defence cooperation has grown significantly, driven by shared interests in the Indo-Pacific region. However, technology transfer remains problematic due to India’s focus on strategic autonomy and US concerns over intellectual property and export controls. This article investigates the same within the context of Defence Technology and Trade Initiative (DTTI), exploring how technology transfer concerns affect joint defence efforts and the development of advanced military system. It also examines US regulatory restrictions, such as International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR), and their impact on technology sharing. Additionally, the article considers India’s ‘Make in India’ and ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ initiatives, which sometimes conflict with US technology protection expectations. The article suggests solutions, including flexible bilateral agreements and enhanced trust-building, to balance strategic partnerships with national sovereignty, aiming to resolve technology transfer issues and maximise the potential of India–US defence collaboration in the Indo-Pacific region.

India–US Defence Cooperation: Opportunity to Achieve Technological Superiority for Indian Armed Forces

Over the years, India has set up comprehensive infrastructure for the manufacture of defence equipment. Although considerable growth has taken place in indigenous capabilities, India is largely dependent on foreign technologies for the high-tech equipment. However, despite Transfer of Technology from foreign countries, the development of indigenous technologies has met with limited success. In the last two decades, India’s relations with the US have become stronger and India has been designated by the US as a ‘Major Defence Partner’. There have been a number of agreements between the two countries for collaborations in various fields including defence technologies, with iCET being the most promising initiative. This provides India with an excellent opportunity to achieve technological excellence with collaboration and co-development with the US. However, there are many challenges which may be an impediment to such development. This article examines India’s need for technology transfer, track record of technology transfers from the US, analyses the current agreements, identifies opportunities and challenges and recommends a way forward.

Enhancing Interoperability and Strategic Convergence: India–US Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific

The strategic partnership between India and the United States has increasingly focussed on joint Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) efforts in the Indian Ocean Region. Cemented by India’s 2016 designation as a ‘Major Defence Partner’, this collaboration now includes joint military exercises, port visits and disaster relief missions. Given the Indo- Pacific region’s importance due to its population and key shipping routes, improved military interoperability and logistical coordination are crucial for tackling climate-related disasters. India’s strong HADR capabilities and capacity-building, along with the strategic support of the United States, have enhanced their bilateral and multilateral cooperation, vital for addressing regional challenges and maintaining stability in the Indo-Pacific.

Defending Cyberspace: India–US Joint Efforts Against Cybercrime

This article examines the evolving landscape of cybercrime and emphasises the essential role of international cooperation, particularly between India and the United States (US). Considering the significant economic and national security repercussions of cyber threats such as ransomware attacks, effectively addressing cybercrime requires coordinated, dedicated and concerted efforts from all nations. India and the US are actively engaged in both bilateral and multilateral forums to adequately tackle the diverse and evolving challenges of cybercrime. Despite some limitations in specific areas of cooperation, both countries have remained committed to responding to cybercrime with robust domestic measures and a coordinated global approach to counter criminal syndicates.