Both AU and the UN have identified clear areas where the capacities for counter-terrorism in Africa have been found wanting. India is in a position to share and build capacities in areas of its competence and comfort. Such help would be along the lines of the Indian policy of building state capacities. Having grappled with terrorism in a democratic set-up, India is also in a position to share its experience of making law enforcement systems respect the fundamental rights of human beings. Measures such as these will also help build the faith of the people of Africa in their own institutions and thus address one the root causes of terrorism in Africa.
At the India Africa Defence Ministers Conclave held in 2020, India and Africa expressed their common desire to counter terrorism and to strengthen the United Nations (UN) mechanisms against terrorism.1 They also expressed the wish to cooperate in combating terrorism. However, so far, India’s support to Africa for this cause has been indirect at best. India has helped in the setting up of defence academies and colleges, deployment of training teams, provision of ammunition and equipment to some African countries and the hosting of Africa India Field Training Exercises (AFINDEX). All these, along with sharing of counterinsurgency and counter terrorism experiences, can be surmised to help build national capabilities in countering terrorism where the threat exists. While India recognises the growing threat of terrorism in Africa, it must contribute more concretely and visibly to counter-terrorism capacity building in Africa.
Trends in African Terrorism
The year 2021 was replete with reports about the menace of Islamist terrorist groups in Africa. According to the Global Terrorism Index (cited below), 10 of the top 20 incidents of terrorism that resulted in the highest number of casualties in 2021 were in Africa. As per a report for the UN Office for Drugs and Crime2, since 2016, North African countries have faced threats from the Al Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) or Daesh and Foreign Terrorist Fighters (FTFs) from Iraq and Syria. Returning FTFs and small cells are additional sources of concern. In East Africa, the Al Shabaab continued to unleash terror with significantly increased attacks against the airfields and aircrafts in Somalia and targeting Kenya. In Southern Africa, the Islamic State Central Africa Province (ISCAP), associated with the ISIL has indulged in acts of violence in northern Mozambique and the Mozambique-Tanzania border. In the West African region, terrorism has been at an all-time high with activities of the Jama’at Nusrat al Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM) and the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS). The AQIM has spilled over from the North of Mali to Burkina Faso and Niger. The ISIL too is acting in the region.
Islamist terrorism in Africa mostly has origins in domestic dissatisfaction with governance including law and order and lack of development. It is in areas marred by violent conflict and political instability that terrorism has found its roots. Thus, this terrorism is politically motivated rather than being religiously motivated.3 It is these that have led to the growth of local terrorist groups who have graduated to making links with global jihadist movements like the Al Qaeda and the Daesh.4 While they have done so in search of a global identity, their connections with these groupings and the military and financial support they receive from them is negligible.5 The terrorist groups however are lethal and have inflicted large civilian casualties.
Countering Terrorism in Africa
Several efforts are ongoing to combat terrorism all over the continent. Among them are national, regional, cross-regional measures as well as cooperation with external actors such as the US, EU and China. In addition, at the continental level, the Organisation for African Unity (OAU) and its successor the African Union (AU) have adopted several instruments to help with combating terrorism such as:
The UN too is an important player aiding in building state capacities to counter terrorism. Specifically, the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime supports 23 projects in the Sahel, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Cameroon, Chad, Nigeria, Benin, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal, Togo, Senegal, West Africa, North Africa, Algeria, Egypt and Morocco, East Africa, Somalia, Kenya, Southern Africa and Mozambique. These projects are aimed at strengthening the criminal justice system to improve prosecution in cases of terrorism and violent extremism, preventing spread of extremism in prisons, as well as in some places, rehabilitating erstwhile terrorists.7
Lags in Counter-Terrorism Measures
Despite all these efforts, much remains to be done in terms of strengthening the capacities of states to deal with terrorism. The Communiqué of the 1040th meeting of the Peace and Security Council of the AU on the Report of the Chairperson of the Commission on Continental Efforts in Preventing and Combating of Terrorism and Violent Extremism in Africa held on 22 October 2021 identified some areas which state capacities ought to be built. These are:
to enact appropriate legislations and administrative procedures to effectively control the production, export, import, transit or retransfers of small arms and light weapons (SALW) in order to prevent illegal manufacture of, and illicit trafficking in, SALW or their diversion to terrorist and criminal groups, in line with the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT)
to enact and enforce appropriate legislation and traceability control measures that include importation, movement, storage, distribution and use of materials and components used for making improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and building counter IED capabilities
to more effectively regulate the use of the internet and social media and to prevent the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) by terrorist groups in their fundraising, narrative promotion, and recruitment, including developing and implementing effective counter-narrative strategies8
Further, in 2021, the Counter Terrorism Committee of the UN through its implementation surveys has identified areas that need to be strengthened in the implementation of various UN Security Council resolutions that specify the measures to be adopted by member states pursuant to those resolutions. It focussed on Security Council resolutions 1373 (2001) and 1624 (2005). Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) criminalises the financing of terrorism, generation or distribution of funds for terrorism, freeze funds and assets of terrorist persons and related entities, prevent the provision of any kind of support to terrorists on their respective territories, increase operational exchange of information that could deter acts of terrorism and help with administrative and judicial aspects of trial of terrorists. Security Council Resolution 1624 (2005), on the other hand, calls upon states to criminalise the incitement to terrorism, prevent acts of terrorism, deny safe haven to terrorists, increase security measures at international borders and airports to prevent entry of terrorists into their territory, promote a dialogue among civilisations and prevent the subversion of educational, cultural, and religious institutions, protect human rights, especially freedom of expression while in pursuit of enhanced security and counter violent extremism through appropriate counter narratives. Whereas significant progress has been achieved in the implementation of the latter resolution, it is in the case of the former that countries in Africa have been found wanting.9
Thus, in North Africa, the survey recommends that financial intelligence units need to be spruced up to repost suspicious transactions that might result in financing of terrorism; investigations and prosecution must be geared up to follow rule of law and respect for human rights; improve border controls and use of Interpol databases. In East Africa, the legislations on terrorism need to be drafted based on principles of legality; laws related to possession of weapons and ammunition need to be strengthened and firearms related offences criminalised; asset freezing regimes need to be operationalised; the capabilities of investigators and prosecutors of criminal investigation must be enhanced; intelligence and law enforcement agencies must be placed under an oversight mechanism; better border management techniques need to be put in place; due place must be given to the national human rights institutions. In Southern Africa, there is a need to develop integrated counter-terrorism strategies; conduct of threat assessments must be improved and shared at the national and regional levels; counter terrorism legislations must be made compatible with human rights; information sharing must be upgraded and Interpol databases must be used; international cooperation must be strengthened and regional protocols must be made operational. In West Africa, there is need to adopt and implement comprehensive national strategies including all stakeholders; improve the counter terrorist financing capabilities; criminalise terrorist acts and all actions that support them; have oversight mechanisms for law enforcement agencies; need for better use of Interpol data among border management services; upgrading border management infrastructure for collection of biometric and biographical information. In Central Africa, national legislation that defines terrorist acts must be brought in line with international counter-terrorism instruments; need to build in safeguards for defendants implicated in cases of terrorism; need to update and implement legislation on illicit weapons and ammunition; enhance oversight of law enforcement agencies by setting up human rights institutions; ensure better connections with Interpol for better coordination with border agencies and foreign counterparts.
Scope for Counter-Terrorism Cooperation
Both AU and the UN have identified clear areas where the capacities for counter-terrorism in Africa have been found wanting. India, given its vast experience in institutionalising and operationalising many of these measures in compliance with the 1373 (2001) regime, is in a position to share and build capacities in areas of its competence and comfort. Such help would be along the lines of the Indian policy of building state capacities. Having grappled with terrorism in a democratic set-up, India is also in a position to share its experience of making law enforcement systems respect the fundamental rights of human beings. Measures such as these will also help build the faith of the people of Africa in their own institutions and thus address one the root causes of terrorism in Africa.
*Dr. Arpita Anant is Associate Fellow at the Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (MP-IDSA), New Delhi.
Scope for India-Africa Cooperation in Countering Terrorism
More from the author
Both AU and the UN have identified clear areas where the capacities for counter-terrorism in Africa have been found wanting. India is in a position to share and build capacities in areas of its competence and comfort. Such help would be along the lines of the Indian policy of building state capacities. Having grappled with terrorism in a democratic set-up, India is also in a position to share its experience of making law enforcement systems respect the fundamental rights of human beings. Measures such as these will also help build the faith of the people of Africa in their own institutions and thus address one the root causes of terrorism in Africa.
At the India Africa Defence Ministers Conclave held in 2020, India and Africa expressed their common desire to counter terrorism and to strengthen the United Nations (UN) mechanisms against terrorism.1 They also expressed the wish to cooperate in combating terrorism. However, so far, India’s support to Africa for this cause has been indirect at best. India has helped in the setting up of defence academies and colleges, deployment of training teams, provision of ammunition and equipment to some African countries and the hosting of Africa India Field Training Exercises (AFINDEX). All these, along with sharing of counterinsurgency and counter terrorism experiences, can be surmised to help build national capabilities in countering terrorism where the threat exists. While India recognises the growing threat of terrorism in Africa, it must contribute more concretely and visibly to counter-terrorism capacity building in Africa.
Trends in African Terrorism
The year 2021 was replete with reports about the menace of Islamist terrorist groups in Africa. According to the Global Terrorism Index (cited below), 10 of the top 20 incidents of terrorism that resulted in the highest number of casualties in 2021 were in Africa. As per a report for the UN Office for Drugs and Crime2 , since 2016, North African countries have faced threats from the Al Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) or Daesh and Foreign Terrorist Fighters (FTFs) from Iraq and Syria. Returning FTFs and small cells are additional sources of concern. In East Africa, the Al Shabaab continued to unleash terror with significantly increased attacks against the airfields and aircrafts in Somalia and targeting Kenya. In Southern Africa, the Islamic State Central Africa Province (ISCAP), associated with the ISIL has indulged in acts of violence in northern Mozambique and the Mozambique-Tanzania border. In the West African region, terrorism has been at an all-time high with activities of the Jama’at Nusrat al Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM) and the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS). The AQIM has spilled over from the North of Mali to Burkina Faso and Niger. The ISIL too is acting in the region.
Islamist terrorism in Africa mostly has origins in domestic dissatisfaction with governance including law and order and lack of development. It is in areas marred by violent conflict and political instability that terrorism has found its roots. Thus, this terrorism is politically motivated rather than being religiously motivated.3 It is these that have led to the growth of local terrorist groups who have graduated to making links with global jihadist movements like the Al Qaeda and the Daesh.4 While they have done so in search of a global identity, their connections with these groupings and the military and financial support they receive from them is negligible.5 The terrorist groups however are lethal and have inflicted large civilian casualties.
Countering Terrorism in Africa
Several efforts are ongoing to combat terrorism all over the continent. Among them are national, regional, cross-regional measures as well as cooperation with external actors such as the US, EU and China. In addition, at the continental level, the Organisation for African Unity (OAU) and its successor the African Union (AU) have adopted several instruments to help with combating terrorism such as:
The UN too is an important player aiding in building state capacities to counter terrorism. Specifically, the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime supports 23 projects in the Sahel, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Cameroon, Chad, Nigeria, Benin, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal, Togo, Senegal, West Africa, North Africa, Algeria, Egypt and Morocco, East Africa, Somalia, Kenya, Southern Africa and Mozambique. These projects are aimed at strengthening the criminal justice system to improve prosecution in cases of terrorism and violent extremism, preventing spread of extremism in prisons, as well as in some places, rehabilitating erstwhile terrorists.7
Lags in Counter-Terrorism Measures
Despite all these efforts, much remains to be done in terms of strengthening the capacities of states to deal with terrorism. The Communiqué of the 1040th meeting of the Peace and Security Council of the AU on the Report of the Chairperson of the Commission on Continental Efforts in Preventing and Combating of Terrorism and Violent Extremism in Africa held on 22 October 2021 identified some areas which state capacities ought to be built. These are:
Further, in 2021, the Counter Terrorism Committee of the UN through its implementation surveys has identified areas that need to be strengthened in the implementation of various UN Security Council resolutions that specify the measures to be adopted by member states pursuant to those resolutions. It focussed on Security Council resolutions 1373 (2001) and 1624 (2005). Security Council resolution 1373 (2001) criminalises the financing of terrorism, generation or distribution of funds for terrorism, freeze funds and assets of terrorist persons and related entities, prevent the provision of any kind of support to terrorists on their respective territories, increase operational exchange of information that could deter acts of terrorism and help with administrative and judicial aspects of trial of terrorists. Security Council Resolution 1624 (2005), on the other hand, calls upon states to criminalise the incitement to terrorism, prevent acts of terrorism, deny safe haven to terrorists, increase security measures at international borders and airports to prevent entry of terrorists into their territory, promote a dialogue among civilisations and prevent the subversion of educational, cultural, and religious institutions, protect human rights, especially freedom of expression while in pursuit of enhanced security and counter violent extremism through appropriate counter narratives. Whereas significant progress has been achieved in the implementation of the latter resolution, it is in the case of the former that countries in Africa have been found wanting.9
Thus, in North Africa, the survey recommends that financial intelligence units need to be spruced up to repost suspicious transactions that might result in financing of terrorism; investigations and prosecution must be geared up to follow rule of law and respect for human rights; improve border controls and use of Interpol databases. In East Africa, the legislations on terrorism need to be drafted based on principles of legality; laws related to possession of weapons and ammunition need to be strengthened and firearms related offences criminalised; asset freezing regimes need to be operationalised; the capabilities of investigators and prosecutors of criminal investigation must be enhanced; intelligence and law enforcement agencies must be placed under an oversight mechanism; better border management techniques need to be put in place; due place must be given to the national human rights institutions. In Southern Africa, there is a need to develop integrated counter-terrorism strategies; conduct of threat assessments must be improved and shared at the national and regional levels; counter terrorism legislations must be made compatible with human rights; information sharing must be upgraded and Interpol databases must be used; international cooperation must be strengthened and regional protocols must be made operational. In West Africa, there is need to adopt and implement comprehensive national strategies including all stakeholders; improve the counter terrorist financing capabilities; criminalise terrorist acts and all actions that support them; have oversight mechanisms for law enforcement agencies; need for better use of Interpol data among border management services; upgrading border management infrastructure for collection of biometric and biographical information. In Central Africa, national legislation that defines terrorist acts must be brought in line with international counter-terrorism instruments; need to build in safeguards for defendants implicated in cases of terrorism; need to update and implement legislation on illicit weapons and ammunition; enhance oversight of law enforcement agencies by setting up human rights institutions; ensure better connections with Interpol for better coordination with border agencies and foreign counterparts.
Scope for Counter-Terrorism Cooperation
Both AU and the UN have identified clear areas where the capacities for counter-terrorism in Africa have been found wanting. India, given its vast experience in institutionalising and operationalising many of these measures in compliance with the 1373 (2001) regime, is in a position to share and build capacities in areas of its competence and comfort. Such help would be along the lines of the Indian policy of building state capacities. Having grappled with terrorism in a democratic set-up, India is also in a position to share its experience of making law enforcement systems respect the fundamental rights of human beings. Measures such as these will also help build the faith of the people of Africa in their own institutions and thus address one the root causes of terrorism in Africa.
*Dr. Arpita Anant is Associate Fellow at the Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (MP-IDSA), New Delhi.
India's Policy Towards West Asia: The Modi Era
India`s Approach to West Asia: Trends, Challenges and Possibilities